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There is a general rule of laying precast concrete pipes: the precast concrete pipes should be laid from downstream end to upstream end. Moreover, precast concrete pipes should preferably be laid with spigot end pointing downstream direction when fitted into sockets.
Stormwater drains collect stormwater in their corresponding catchment areas during rainstorm and convey the collected water through outlets to the sea. Therefore, in considering the hydraulic design of stormwater drains, other than normal drainage pipe capacity to be taken into consideration, one should check the backwater effect due to tidal condition at outlets if the drains are located quite close to the downstream end of outlets.
The presence of lateral pressure of backfilling sidesoils induces bending
moments in the opposite direction from those produced by vertical loads and bedding support reaction. Such bending moment reduces the flexure in pipe wall and as a result this causes an equivalent increase in supporting strength of the pipe.
Whenever possible box culverts should be designed for free flow at design flow rate. A box culvert with surcharged flow is similar to inverted siphon which creates maintenance problem. There is a risk of blockage by silt and debris and the inspection and maintenance of submerged culvert is difficult when compared with free flow condition. For long box culverts (more than 20m) it is even more important to design for free flow to decrease the risk of blockage which results in an inaccessible path.
Rock used for riprap should be blocky and angular, with sharp edges and flat faces. Angular stones proved to be effective to withstand external forces. Rounded stones have a high tendency to roll and inadequately protect the channel bed and bank. The ratio of length to thickness of angular stones should be less than 2.
Riprap by dumping involves the dumping of graded stone by dragline or crane in such a way that segregation would not take place. Dumped riprap is a layer of loose stone so that individual stones independently adjust to shift in or out of the riprap. The dumped riprap is very flexible and would not be damaged or weakened by minor movement of the bank caused by settlement. Moreover, local damage or soil loss can be readily repaired by placement of more rock.
Riprap is an erosion-resistant ground cover made up of large, angular and loose stones (rock, concrete or other material) with geotextile or granular layer underneath. Riprap is commonly used in drainage channel to provide a stable lining to resist erosion by channel water. It is also used in channels where infiltration is intended but the velocity of flow is too large for vegetation.
In a typical box culvert, at the interface between rockfill layer and sub-grade, a layer of geotextile filter is usually added to perform separation function. With the addition of geotextile filter layer, it avoids the intermixing of widely different soil granulations so as to reduce long-term settlement.
Flow velocity seldom causes abrasion problem for concrete pipes. Instead, the particles carried by effluent in high velocity may create abrasion problem of concrete. The abrasive effect is dependent on the size of particles and velocity. In most circumstances, the problem of abrasion shall be avoided for flow velocities less than 8m/s.
Concrete pipes are designed to crack in tensile zone so that steel reinforcement could take up the tensile stress. Flexural stresses are developed at the top and bottom inside surfaces and on the outside longitudinal cracks.
